Common Pochard

Aythya ferina

2023-2028 Recommendation: no take – targeted conservation effort required.

Species trend

The UK hosts a very small number of breeding pochard; however, many over-winter in the UK.

The pochard population shows a ten-year wintering population decline in the UK of greater than 25 per cent between 2008-2018. This decline has been seen on a UK, European and global level and is predicted to continue; as such, the species has been listed as ‘vulnerable’ on the European International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List.

Action to prevent further continued population declines is required across the flyway (north-east to north-west Europe).
Within the UK, it is vital that we better understand the species distribution, abundance, and historic harvest of pochard in order to encourage the small breeding population to thrive. As a result, BASC has provided the following recommendations:

Research required

• Breeding and wintering surveys to better understand local and national distribution and abundance.
• Historic bag returns and the submission of current bag data to better inform harvest estimates (data can be submitted to the Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust (GWCT) National Gamebag Census or BASC Green Shoots Bagged It).

Shooting restrictions

Voluntary moratorium, i.e. shooters should voluntarily refrain from shooting common pochard.

Habitat management

• Maintenance or restoration of freshwater floodplains to provide optimum feeding and roosting environments comprising of deep water (up to 2.5m).
• Maintenance or creation of abundant aquatic plant areas which provide roots, shoots, and seeds for food.
• Targeted predator control in areas where known breeding populations exist.

Stage 2 assessment

Species summary

Pochard show widespread declines across their range, in part a result of declines from an all-time high¹. The species originally expanded in size and range due to development of inland fisheries in Eastern Europe which have now been abandoned or intensified, making them less suitable for pochard¹.

The highest breeding numbers of pochard are found in Russia and Eastern Europe1. The UK supports a limited percentage of the global breeding population (<1%) and therefore conservation action must be taken at a flyway level to be effective.

Currently, pochard are under the highest AEWA protection and a flyway level action plan is required². This will likely include increased adoption of non-toxic shot³, wetland restoration and improved understanding of migratory movement and population dynamics^1,4.

Reduction in shooting pressure or better monitoring of bag data may contribute to the understanding of hunting pressure and a possible link to the species declining population trend¹.

Species conservation status (see Table 1)

The pochard population shows a 10-year wintering population decline in the UK >25% between 2008-2018⁵. Within UK countries, this decline is greatest in Scotland and Wales (-63% in both cases)⁵. These declines are also highlighted in ‘high’ WeBS Alerts for all UK countries over the long-term (<25 years)⁶.

Pochard have demonstrated this substantial long and short-term decline at a global⁷, flyway², European⁸ and UK⁵ level. This trend is predicted to continue. It is suggested that a degree of decline is not only expected but should be accepted to allow the population to return to less artificial levels¹. However, this declining trend must stabilise soon to prevent possible species loss¹.

Population dynamics

Further research is required to disentangle the drivers of natural mortality and hunting on the pochard population across the flyway^1,4,11. Limited studies suggest pochard display high adult survival probabilities, therefore population declines are, in part, thought to be predominantly driven by decreases in juvenile survival and/or poor nesting success¹¹. Adult females do also display poorer survival compared to males, likely a result of increased vulnerability to predation during the breeding season^4,11. This may in part be contributing to population trends⁴, or may in fact be a symptom of poor breeding success¹¹.

Table 1. Species conservation status across different scales. *It has been highlighted by BASC that such automatic linkage between IUCN status and levels of protection by AEWA is directly contrary to the IUCN’s advice on the use of its list. **No Breeding Bird Survey data (BBS) due to Pochard primarily being an over-wintering species in the UK.

Hunting and harvest (see Table 2)

The pochard shooting seasons in the UK are not compliant with the Key Concepts of Article 7(4)¹². The start date of the open season in England and Wales (1 Sept) overlaps with the estimated end of the reproduction period for pochard in the south of the UK by two ‘decades’ (approx. 20 days). This is therefore in breach of the agreement.

Pochard are not a heavily hunted species in the UK, with low bag numbers reported in recent years (~180 birds in 2012 and ~370 birds in 2016)¹³. As a result, they are estimated to have low probability of an unsustainable harvest in the UK¹⁴. However, this may not be the case on the continent¹⁵. A number of BASC registered wildfowling clubs have already adopted a voluntary ban on shooting pochard due to consenting legislative pressure as a result of the species decline, though they recognise this will have no tangible conservation benefit for the local or national pochard population.

Although there are numerous non-hunting pressures facing the species, recent studies^3,16 have shown that pochard are one of many species susceptible to lead poisoning, therefore continued and increased use of non-toxic shot is vital for this and other waterbird species. A possible spatial segregation of male and female overwintering locations may also expose female birds (who winter further south in Europe) to increased hunting pressure, thus driving the overall population decline¹⁶.

With many wildfowling clubs already undertaking a voluntary moratorium on the shooting of pochard, combined with low bag numbers, the targeted voluntary cessation of shooting is an achievable target. However, this action is not likely to have a significant conservation benefit. As a freshwater duck, inland shooting is likely a greater threat and is out with the jurisdiction of most of the BASC wildfowling club structures. Quarry identification resources are currently being developed within the Wildfowling and Wetland department to help raise awareness and knowledge, particularly among inland wildfowlers.

Table 2. Estimated sustainability of species harvest in the UK. Table from Ellis & Cameron 2022.

Pressures, action and research

Pressures

Changes in fishery management and the resulting habitat loss in Eastern Europe is the major threat to pochard across their range^1,17,18. Climate change is considered a driver of decline in pochard as well as other wildfowl, resulting in reduced ephemeral waterbodies or increased severe weather¹⁹. Additionally, changes to water quality due to agricultural activity causing run-off and eutrophication, alongside reduction in wetlands, are major pressures facing this species^1,19. Shifts in species composition i.e. increase in carp, foxes and mink and a decrease in black-headed gulls are also suggested to impact pochard populations through competition and predation activity^1,19. The combined effect of these pressures is added to by a degree of mortality driven by lead poisoning, an indirect effect of lead ammunition and fishing tackle.^3,4,19

Practical action

A flyway-level species action plan is required (NE/NW Europe flyway) in combination with

a UK-level action plan for conservation². However, coordination is required across the global range due to mixing of populations from different flyways^20–22. Improving habitat management in and around commercial fisheries may require incentivisation in eastern European countries^1,17. Reducing the impact of development in and around wetland and coastal areas, alongside restoring wetland habitat and improving water quality is vital for this wetland species¹⁹. However, water-quality improvement may also make habitat less favourable for pochard²³. An increased reduction in lead use (which has been in place since 1999 in certain areas or for certain species, and is currently being phased out across the UK) will be vital to reducing the long-term impact of lead poisoning. In parallel, reduced hunting pressure would lessen the additive effect of the pressures faced by pochard across its range^3,19. Isolated action within the UK will have a limited impact due to the proportion of the breeding and wintering population the country supports.

Research action

Improved assessment of bag data demographics is key to understanding drivers of the skewed sex ratio seen in pochard (male-biased due to poor female survival), and any potential role that hunting plays in this shift⁴. Further understanding of changes in migratory patterns and clarification of major pressures across the flyways are needed to enable an effective action plan to be developed^1,4.

References

1. Fox, D., Caizergues, A., Baik, M. V., Devos, K. & Dvorak, M. Recent changes in the abundance of Common Pochard Aythya ferina breeding in Europe. Wildfowl 66, 22–40 (2016).
2. Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) – Agreement Text and Annexes As amended by MOP8. (2022).
3. Newth, L. et al. Poisoning from lead gunshot: Still a threat to wild waterbirds in Britain. Eur J Wildl Res 59, 195–204 (2013).
4. Brides, , Wood, K. A., Hearn, R. D. & Fijen, T. P. M. Changes in the sex ratio of the Common Pochard Aythya ferina in Europe and North Africa. Wildfowl 67, 100–112 (2017).
5. Frost, T. M. et al. Waterbirds in the UK 2019/20: The Wetland Bird Survey. (2021).
6. Woodward, I. D., Frost, T. M., Hammond, M. J. & Austin, G. E. Wetland Bird Survey Alerts 2016/2017: Changes in numbers of wintering waterbirds in the Constituent Countries of the United Kingdom, Special Protection Areas (SPAs), Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) and Areas of Special Scientific interest (ASSIs). BTO Research Report 721. bto.org/webs-reporting-alerts (2019).
7. Birdlife Aythya ferina. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e.T22680358A205288455. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22680358A205288455.en (2021) doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021.
8. BirdLife European Red List of Birds. https://op.europa.eu/en/publications. (2021) doi:10.2779/967570.
9. Stanbury, et al. The status of our bird populations: The fifth Birds of Conservation Concern in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands and Isle of Man and second IUCN Red List assessment of extinction risk for Great Britain. British Birds 114, 723–747 (2021).
10. Woodward, et al. APEP 4: Population estimates of birds in Great Britain and the United Kingdom. British Birds 113, 69–104 (2020).
11. Folliot, et al. When survival matters: Is decreasing survival underlying the decline of common pochard in western Europe? Wildlife Biol 2020, (2020).
12. Key concepts of Article 7(4) of Directive 79/409/EEC: Period of reproduction and prenuptial migration of Annex II bird species in the 28 Member States. (2014).
13. Aebischer, N. J. Fifty-year trends in UK hunting bags of birds and mammals, and calibrated estimation of national bag size, using GWCT’s National Gamebag Eur J Wildl Res 65, (2019).
14. Ellis, & Cameron, T. An initial assessment of the sustainability of waterbird harvest in the United Kingdom. bioRxiv (2022).
15. Guillemain, , Aubry, P., Follio, B. & Caizergues, A. Duck hunting bag estimates for the 2013/14 season in France. Wildfowl 66, 126–141 (2016).
16. Green, E. & Pain, D. J. Possible effects of ingested lead gunshot on populations of ducks wintering in the UK. Ibis 158, 699–710 (2016).
17. Aghababyan, , Khachatryan, A., Baloyan, S., Ghazaryan, A. & Gevorgyan, V. Assessing the current status of the Common Pochard Aythya ferina in Armenia. Wildfowl 71, 147–166 (2021).
18. Broyer, & Bourguemestre, F. Common pochard Aythya ferina breeding density and fishpond management in central France. Wildlife Biol 2020, (2020).
19. Stichting BirdLife Europe, BirdLife International & Article 12 EU population status assessments: Annex B – Bird species’ status and trends report format (Article 12) for the period 2013 – 2018. (2020).
20. Folliot, , Guillemain, M., Champagnon, J. & Caizergues, A. Patterns of spatial Dstribution and migration phenology of common pochards Aythya ferina in the Western Palearctic: A ring-recoveries analysis. Wildlife Biol 2018, (2018).
21. Liu, , Keller, I. & Heckel, G. Range-wide genetic population structure of common pochard (aythya ferina): A potentially important vector of highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses. Ecol Evol 1, 529–545 (2011).
22. Keller, , Korner-Nievergelt, F. & Jenni, L. Within-winter movements: A common phenomenon in the Common Pochard Aythya ferina. J Ornithol 150, 483–494 (2009).
23. Marsden, S. J. & Bellamy, G. S. Microhabitat characteristics of feeding sites used by diving duck Aythya wintering on the grossly polluted Manchester Ship Canal, Environ Conserv 27, 278–283 (2000).

Northern Pintail

Species trend

Research required

• International flyway-level collaboration with
• relevant
• Wintering surveys to better understand local and national distribution and
• Submission of bag data to better inform harvest estimates (data can be submitted to the GWCT National Gamebag Census or BASC Green Shoots Bagged It).
• Shooters should support the BASC wing survey to enable better understanding of adult:juvenile and male:female harvest ratios.

Shooting restrictions

• Two pintail per person, per day, bag limit
• Should target males where
• No sale of shot

Habitat management

• Pintail prefer habitats with low vegetation and shallow water; they will also frequent large inland lakes, ponds, marshes, and coastal lagoons.
• In order to provide an abundant supply of high-energy and nutritional foods for pintail, wetland water depths should be less than 45cm but preferably less than 15cm for an abundant food source.
• Weed management can improve habitat for pintail when benefiting native plant

Stage 2 assessment

Species summary

Species conservation status (see Table 1)

Population dynamics

Hunting and harvest

Pressures, action and research

References

1. HMiller, R. & Duncan, D. C. The Northern Pintail in North America: Status and Conservation Needs of a Struggling Population. Bulletin 27, 788–800 (1973).
2. Parejo, et al. Day and night use of habitats by northern pintails during winter in a primary rice-growing region of Iberia. PLoS One 14, (2019).
3. Rice, M. B., Haukos, D. A., Dubovsky, J. A. & Runge, M. C. Continental survival and recovery rates of Northern pintails using band-recovery Journal of Wildlife Management 74, 778–787 (2010).
4. Bartzen, B. A. & Dufour, K. W. Northern Pintail (Anas acuta) survival, recovery, and harvest rates derived from 55 years of banding in Prairie Canada, 1960–2014. Avian Conservation and Ecology 12, (2017).
5. Frost, T. M. et al. Waterbirds in the UK 2019/20: The Wetland Bird Survey. (2021).
6. Woodward, I. D., Frost, T. M., Hammond, M. J. & Austin, G. E. Wetland Bird Survey Alerts 2016/2017: Changes in Numbers of Wintering Waterbirds in the Constituent Countries of the United Kingdom, Special Protection Areas (SPAs), Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) and Areas of Special Scientific Interest (ASSIs). BTO Research Report 721. bto.org/webs-reporting-alerts (2019).
7. BirdLife European Red List of Birds. https://op.europa.eu/en/publications. (2021) doi:10.2779/967570.
8. Anas The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019: E.T22680301A153882797. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22680301A153882797.en (2019) doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019.
9. Stanbury, et al. The status of our bird populations: the fifth Birds of Conservation Concern in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands and Isle of Man and second IUCN Red List assessment of extinction risk for Great Britain. British Birds 114, 723–747 (2021).
10. Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) – Agreement Text and Annexes As Amended by MOP8. (2022).
11. Woodward, et al. APEP 4: Population estimates of birds in Great Britain and the United Kingdom. British Birds 113, 69–104 (2020).
12. Eaton, M. Rare breeding birds in the UK in 2019. British Birds 114, 646–704 (2021).
13. Wood, A., Brides, K., Durham, M. E. & Hearn, R. D. Adults have more male-biased sex ratios than first-winter juveniles in wintering duck populations. Avian Res 12, (2021).
14. Key Concepts of Article 7(4) of Directive 79/409/EEC: Period of Reproduction and Prenuptial Migration of Annex II Bird Species in the 28 Member States. (2014).
15. Aebischer, N. J. Fifty-year trends in UK hunting bags of birds and mammals, and calibrated estimation of national bag size, using GWCT’s National Gamebag Eur J Wildl Res 65, (2019).
16. Ellis, B. & Cameron, T. C. An initial assessment of the sustainability of waterbird harvest in the United Kingdom. Journal of Applied Ecology 59, 2839–2848 (2022).
17. Guillemain, , Aubry, P., Follio, B. & Caizergues, A. Duck hunting bag estimates for the 2013/14 season in France. Wildfowl 66, 126–141 (2016).
18. Sedinger, S. & Herzog, M. P. Harvest and dynamics of duck populations. Journal of Wildlife Management vol. 76 1108–1116 Preprint at https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.370 (2012).
19. Migoya, , Baldassarre, G. & Losito, M. Diurnal activity budgets and habitat functions of Northern Pintail Anas acuta wintering in Sinaloa, Mexico. Wildfowl 45, 134–146 (1994).
20. Casazza, L., Coates, P. S., Miller, M. R., Overton, C. T. & Yparraguirre, D. R. Hunting influences the diel patterns in habitat selection by northern pintails Anas acuta. Wildlife Biol 18, 1–13 (2012).
21. Cox, R. & Afton, A. D. Use of Habitats by Female Northern Pintails Wintering in Southwestern Louisiana. J Wildl Manage 61, 435–443 (1997).
22. Taylor, P. et al. Influence of Environmental Stress and Anthropogenic Disturbance Influence of Environmental Stress and Anthropogenic Disturbance on the Energy Expenditure of Wintering Northern Pintails (Anas on the Energy Expenditure of Wintering Northern Pintails (Anas acuta) acuta). Waterbirds 42, 294–303 (2019).
23. Mateo, R., Martlnez-Vilalta, A. & Guitart, R. Lead shot pellets in the Ebro delta, Spain: Densities in sediments and prevalence of exposure in Environmental Pollution 96, 335–341 (1997).
24. Newth, L. et al. Poisoning from lead gunshot: Still a threat to wild waterbirds in Britain. Eur J Wildl Res 59, 195–204 (2013).
25. Podruzny, M., Devries, J. H. & Armstrong, L. M. Long-term response of Northern pintails to changes in wetlands and agriculture in the Canadian Prairie Pothole Region. J Wildl Manage 66, 993–1010 (2002).
26. Stichting BirdLife Europe, BirdLife International & Article 12 EU Population Status Assessments: Annex B – Bird Species’ Status and Trends Report Format (Article 12) for the Period 2013 – 2018. (2020).
27. Jahangir, et al. Surveillance of Avian Influenza Viruses in Northern Pintails (Anas acuta) in Tohoku District, Japan. Avian Dis 52, 49–53 (2008).
28. Koehler, v., Pearce, J. M., Flint, P. L., Franson, J. C. & Ip, H. S. Genetic evidence of intercontinental movement of avian influenza in a migratory bird: The northern pintail (Anas acuta). Mol Ecol 17, 4754–4762 (2008).
29. Cox, R. & Afton, A. D. Evening flights of female Northern Pintails from a major roost site. Condor 98, 810–819 (1996).
30. Balmer, E. et al. Bird Atlas 2007-11: The Breeding and Wintering Birds of Britain and Ireland. (Thetford: BTO, 2013).

Goldeneye

Species trend

Research required

• Breeding and wintering surveys to better understand local and national distribution and abundance.
• Submission of bag data to better inform harvest estimates (data can be submitted to GWCT National Gamebag Census or BASC Green Shoots Bagged It).
• Shooters should support the BASC wing survey to enable better understanding of adult:juvenile and male:female harvest ratios.
• Increased ringing, ring resighting and ring recovery reporting

Shooting restrictions

• Should delay shooting until October where resident breeding goldeneye are
• Show restraint, even when resident birds are Shoot what you need, not what you can.

Habitat management

• The installation of nest boxes has been shown to support goldeneye nesting and increase brood numbers where natural tree cavities are limited.
• Pest and predator

Stage 2 assessment

Species summary

Species conservation status (see Table 1)

Population dynamics

Hunting and harvest (see Table 2)

Pressures, action and research

References

1. Frost, T. M. et al. Waterbirds in the UK 2019/20: The Wetland Bird Survey. (2021).
2. Woodward, I. D., Frost, T. M., Hammond, M. J. & Austin, G. E. Wetland Bird Survey Alerts 2016/2017: Changes in numbers of wintering waterbirds in the Constituent Countries of the United Kingdom, Special Protection Areas (SPAs), Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) and Areas of Special Scientific interest (ASSIs). BTO Research Report 721. bto.org/webs-reporting-alerts (2019).
3. BirdLife European Red List of Birds. https://op.europa.eu/en/publications. (2021) doi:10.2779/967570.
4. Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) – Agreement Text and Annexes As amended by MOP8. (2022).
5. BirdLife Bucephala clangula. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018- 2.RLTS.T22680455A132529366.en (2018) doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018.
6. Lehikoinen, & Jaatinen, K. Delayed autumn migration in northern European waterfowl. J Ornithol 153, 563–570 (2012).
7. Clark, G., Pöysä, H., Runko, P. & Paasivaara, A. Spring phenology and timing of breeding in short-distance migrant birds: Phenotypic responses and offspring recruitment patterns in common goldeneyes. J Avian Biol 45, 457–465 (2014).
8. Lehikoinen, et al. Rapid climate driven shifts in wintering distributions of three common waterbird species. Glob Chang Biol 19, 2071–2081 (2013).
9. Stichting BirdLife Europe, BirdLife International & Article 12 EU population status assessments: Annex B – Bird species’ status and trends report format (Article 12) for the period 2013 – 2018. (2020).
10. Eaton, M. Rare breeding birds in the UK in 2019. British Birds 114, 646–704 (2021).
11. Stanbury, et al. The status of our bird populations: the fifth Birds of Conservation Concern in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands and Isle of Man and second IUCN Red List assessment of extinction risk for Great Britain. British Birds 114, 723–747 (2021).
12. Woodward, et al. APEP 4: Population estimates of birds in Great Britain and the United Kingdom. British Birds 113, 69–104 (2020).
13. Key concepts of Article 7(4) of Directive 79/409/EEC: Period of reproduction and prenuptial migration of Annex II bird species in the 28 Member States. (2014).
14. Aebischer, N. J. Fifty-year trends in UK hunting bags of birds and mammals, and calibrated estimation of national bag size, using GWCT’s National Gamebag Eur J Wildl Res 65, (2019).
15. Ellis, & Cameron, T. An initial assessment of the sustainability of waterbird harvest in the United Kingdom. bioRxiv (2022).
16. Guillemain, , Aubry, P., Follio, B. & Caizergues, A. Duck hunting bag estimates for the 2013/14 season in France. Wildfowl 66, 126–141 (2016).
17. Pöysä, H., Rintala, J., Lehikoinen, A. & Väisänen, R. A. The importance of hunting pressure, habitat preference and life history for population trends of breeding waterbirds in Eur J Wildl Res 59, 245–256 (2013).
18. Holopainen, et al. Associations between duck harvest, hunting wing ratios and measures of reproductive output in Northern Europe. Eur J Wildl Res 64, (2018).
19. Campbell, H. The Impact of Changes in Sewage Treatment on Seaducks Wintering in the Firth of Forth, Scotland. Biol Conserv 28, 173–180 (1984).
20. Eriksson, O. G. Competition Between Freshwater Fish and Goldeneyes Bucephala clangula (L.) for Common Prey. Oecologia (Berl.) 41, 99–107 (1979).
21. Nummi, P., Väänänen, V. M., Rask, M., Nyberg, K. & Taskinen, K. Competitive effects of fish in structurally simple habitats: Perch, invertebrates, and goldeneye in small boreal Aquat Sci 74, 343–350 (2012).
22. Corrigan, M., Scrimgeour, G. J. & Paszkowsk, C. Nest Boxes Facilitate Local-Scale Conservation of Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) and Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola) in Alberta, Canada. Avian Conservation and Ecology 6, (2011).
23. Sénéchal, , Gauthier, G. & Savard, J.-P. L. Nesting Ecology of Common Goldeneyes and Hooded Mergansers in a Boreal River System. Wilson J Ornithol 120, 732–742 (2008).
24. Savard, -P. L. & Robert, M. Use of Nest Boxes by Goldeneyes in Eastern North America. Source: The Wilson Journal of Ornithology vol. 119 https://www.jstor.org/stable/20455945?seq=1&cid=pdf-(2007).
25. Dow, & Fredga, S. Selection of nest sites by a hole-nesting duck, the Goldeneye Bucephala clangula. Ibis 127, 16–30 (1985).
26. Musilová, , Musil, P., Zouhar, J. & Adam, M. Changes in habitat suitability influence non-breeding distribution of waterbirds in central Europe. Ibis 160, 582–596 (2018).
27. Lawson, A. J., Sedinger, J. S. & Taylor, E. J. Identifying demographic and environmental drivers of recruitment and population growth in a cavity-nesting sea duck J Avian Biol 48, 1394–1405 (2017).
28. Zicus, M. C. & Henives, S. K. Nest prospecting by common goldeneyes. Condor 91, 807–812 (1989).

Greater Scaup

Aythya marila

Northern Ireland only

2023-2028 Recommendation: show restraint, targeted research and conservation effort required.

Species trend

The UK does not host a breeding population of scaup, with only one or two pairs recorded each year; however, many overwinter in the UK.

The scaup population shows a ten-year wintering population decline in the UK of greater than 25 per cent between 2008-2018. This decline has been seen on a UK level but not replicated at a European or global level, where it is listed as of ‘least concern’.
The decline in the UK overwintering population correlates with changes in climate, food supply and other pressures. The eastern European population now winters closer to their breeding grounds, a phenomenon known as short-stopping.

With sufficient protected areas and effective habitat management, shooting restrictions are not necessary. However, it is vital that monitoring of abundance, productivity and bag data is enhanced to maximise the conservation benefits of future actions.
Based on the species trends and information available, BASC has provided the following recommendations:

Research required

• Wintering surveys to better understand local and national distribution and
• Submission of bag data is required to better inform harvest estimates (data can be submitted to GWCT National Gamebag Census or BASC Green Shoots Bagged It).
• Shooters should support the BASC wing survey to enable better understanding of adult:juvenile and male:female harvest ratios.
• Increased ringing, ring resighting, and ring recovery reporting

Shooting restrictions

• Should show
• Site-based considerations

Habitat management

• Maintenance or restoration of large water habitats, either coastal or freshwater, to provide optimum feeding and roosting environments comprising of deep water (1m to 5m).
• Minimise impacts on the sea bed/lake bed to ensure availability of suitable

Stage 2 assessment

Species summary

Greater scaup (herein scaup), is a migratory diving duck found across large parts of the Northern Hemisphere. The north-eastern flyway population overwinter in the UK from Iceland, and historically Russia and Fennoscandia, rarely breeding in the UK^1–3. Previously high population sizes in the mid-late 1900’s have declined substantially, resulting in an unfavourable conservation status across Europe^1,4–6. In the UK, this decline in wintering population size has been driven predominantly by short-stopping of birds from Russia and Fennoscandia⁷.

In both North America and Europe, drivers of decline in the species remain unclear and may be linked to climate, predation, density or a combination of these factors^7–9. The majority of scaup-focussed evidence is based on North American populations and identifies a decline in female survival and recruitment^10,11, however drivers are somewhat unclear and these studies must be interpreted with caution. Research within flyway-relevant populations identifies bycatch from fisheries as the main human-mediated driver of mortality.

Species conservation status (see Table 1)

Scaup show a 54% decline overall in the UK over the last 10 years (2010/11-2020/21)⁶. This is driven by declines in wintering populations in N Ireland (-76%), England (-36%) and Scotland (-29%) during this time period. However, the Welsh population appears to be increasing (+24%) after a 25-year decline of -93%. These declines are shared across the continent of Europe^5. However, the North-western flyway population appears to be increasing and remains a substantial size². The global population remains large but is showing a decline thought to be driven by changes in human activity and climate change³.

Table 1. Species conservation status across different scales. *It has been highlighted by BASC that such automatic linkage between IUCN status and levels of protection by AEWA is directly contrary to the IUCN’s advice on the use of its list. **No Breeding Bird Survey data (BBS) due to Scaup primarily being an over-wintering species in the UK.

Population dynamics

The European population is demonstrating a north-eastern shift, likely driven by climate change and the appearance of more appropriate wintering habitat nearer to breeding grounds⁷. As a result, parts of the Baltic Sea are now key overwintering sites^7,16. The overwintering populations of scaup in the UK, Ireland and the Netherlands have declined in the last 30 years due to this short-stopping, particularly by the Russian and Fennoscandian populations⁷. The UK and Ireland now predominantly host the over-wintering Icelandic population, therefore the mixing of Russian and Icelandic birds may become even more reduced with time, creating distinct geographic populations⁷. This shift, combined with inadequate conservation measures in new overwintering sites in central Europe, is posing a significant threat to the population at large⁷. Scaup, like many other waterbirds, demonstrate an uneven sex ratio with a male bias¹⁷. Population compositions in Northern Ireland also suggest differential migration, with females often migrating further south to winter¹⁸.

Scaup often form mixed flocks with tufted duck A. fuligula and pochard A.ferina during migration and wintering¹⁹. BTO ringing data suggests the species is relatively short-lived (typically live three years, breeding in year two), with an adult survival of less than 50% therefore it is likely that reproductive output (as opposed to adult survival) plays an important role in population dynamics.

Hunting and harvest

Scaup shooting seasons in Northern Ireland are compliant with the Key Concepts of Article 7(4)²⁰. There are no current or historical bag number estimates published for scaup.

Therefore, it is difficult to determine the level of hunting pressure or estimate a Sustainable Harvest Index (SHI) which has been done for more common waterbird quarry²¹. Scaup can only be hunted in ten EU Member States³. Limited research suggests harvest has a negligible impact on the population as a whole^3,10. Like many other waterbirds, scaup are susceptible lead shot ingestion, therefore the continued use of non-toxic shot will benefit the species²². North American studies find little evidence that harvest pressure is driving declines in greater and lesser scaup, however lower female survival and poor recruitment are contributing factors^9–11. It is important to note that these studies focus on North American populations and the same processes may not be in play within the European flyways.

Pressures, action and research

Pressures

Scaup predominantly feed at night in shallow coastal or brackish water but will winter inland near to the coast^1,7,19. These areas are subject to commercial and recreational activities and by-catch by commercial fisheries is a limiting factor for many diving duck populations in Europe^3,7,16,23. Other fishing activity such as dredging impacts scaup food resource availability in key sites⁷. Due to a predominantly shellfish-centric diet, the species is also vulnerable to changes in water quality²⁴. Distribution of wintering birds has also shown to be correlated with food availability and distribution⁴. Historically, scaup numbers were boosted by cockle harvesting in Scotland, but declined following its cessation⁴. In parts of their European distribution, scaup depend on zebra mussels (a non-native) for food. There is therefore a trade off between invasive species eradication and supporting wintering waterfowl¹⁹. As with other diving ducks, feeding near water treatment discharge was common and more recent improvements in water quality may have contributed to population declines¹. Scaup are also susceptible to avian influenza and due to large inter-continental movements may play a role in the spread of the disease²⁵. The impact of climate change on both breeding and overwintering habitat are suggested to impact survival and productivity of scaup due to varying weather conditions (i.e. snow cover) and food availability^3,7,9. As a late-nesting species, the reduced flexibility of scaup to adjust their timing of breeding makes them more susceptible to such changes²⁶.

Practical action

Preservation and protection of breeding grounds and key wintering grounds in northern Europe are key^3,27. Since scaup also display and form pair bonds at wintering sites, adequate food resources are important for the population at these non-breeding sites prior to return migration¹⁹. Limiting fishing operations in areas with high overwintering diving duck numbers would reduce bycatch and entanglement^16,23. Up-to-date species management plans are required for SPA’s where the species occurs⁷. Scaup are bottom-feeding divers therefore reducing disturbance to the floor of waterbodies (especially 1-5m in depth) encourages the retention of prey such as bivalves or chironomid larvae¹⁹.

Research action

An increase in bag data from the UK will enable a greater understanding of the Icelandic flyway population composition. This may allow for drivers of scaup declines to be better understood. Increased tagging and ringing research may provide further data on short-stopping behaviour and potential segregation of Icelandic and Russian/Fennoscandian birds¹.

References

1. Kirby, S., Evans, R. J. & Fox, A. D. Wintering seaducks in Britian and Ireland: populations, threats, conservation and research priorities. Aquat Conserv 3, 105–137 (1993).
2. Wetlands International. Waterbird Populations Portal. wpp.wetlands.org (2022).
3. BirdLife International. Aythya Marila. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018 e.T22680398A132525108. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018- (2018) doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018.
4. Quinn, L., Still, L., Carrier, M. C., Kirby, J. S. & Lambdon, P. Scaup Aythya marila numbers and the Cockle Cardium edule fishery on the Solway Firth: are they related? Wildfowl 47, 187–194 (1996).
5. BirdLife European Red List of Birds. https://op.europa.eu/en/publications. (2021) doi:10.2779/967570.
6. Austin, E. et al. Waterbirds in the UK 2021/22: The Wetland Bird Survey and Goose & Swan Monitoring Programme. . (2023).
7. Marchowski, et al. Effectiveness of the European Natura 2000 network to sustain a specialist wintering waterbird population in the face of climate change. Sci Rep 10, (2020).
8. Ross, B. & Devink, J.-M. Combined effects of climate, predation, and density dependence on Greater and Lesser Scaup population Ecological Applications 25, 1606–1617 (2015).
9. Tatman, M. et al. Tatman et al 2009 – nest success and duckling survival of greater scaup in New Brunswick. The Canadian Field Naturalist 123, 323–328 (2009).
10. Afton, D. & Anderson, M. G. Declining Scaup Populations: A Retrospective Analysis of Long-Term Population and Harvest Survey Data. J Wildl Manage 65, 781–796 (2001).
11. Austin, E. et al. Declining Scaup Populations: Issues, Hypotheses, and Research Needs. Wildl Soc Bull 28, 254–263 (2000).
12. Stanbury, et al. The status of our bird populations: the fifth Birds of Conservation Concern in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands and Isle of Man and second IUCN Red List assessment of extinction risk for Great Britain. British Birds 114, 723–747 (2021).
13. Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) – Agreement Text and Annexes As Amended by MOP8. (2022).
14. Woodward, et al. APEP 4: Population estimates of birds in Great Britain and the United Kingdom. British Birds 113, 69–104 (2020).
15. Frost, T. M. et al. Waterbirds in the UK 2019/20: The Wetland Bird Survey. (2021).
16. Marchowski, & Leitner, M. Conservation implications of extraordinary Greater Scaup (Aythya marila) concentrations in the Odra Estuary, Poland. Condor 121, (2019).
17. Sotherland, P. R. & Rahn, H. On the composition of bird eggs. Condor 89, 48–65 (1987).
18. Evans, M. & Day, K. R. Migration patterns and sex ratios of diving ducks wintering in Northern Ireland with specific reference to Lough Neagh. Ringing and Migration 20, 358–363 (2001).
19. Marchowski, et al. The importance of non-native prey, the zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha, for the declining greater scaup Aythya marila: A case study at a key European staging and wintering site. PLoS One 10, (2015).
20. Key Concepts of Article 7(4) of Directive 79/409/EEC: Period of Reproduction and Prenuptial Migration of Annex II Bird Species in the 28 Member States. (2014).
21. Ellis, B. & Cameron, T. C. An initial assessment of the sustainability of waterbird harvest in the United Kingdom. Journal of Applied Ecology 59, 2839–2848 (2022).
22. Demendi, & Petrie, S. A. Shot Ingestion in Scaup on the Lower Great Lakes After Nontoxic Shot Regulations in Canada. Wildl Soc Bull 34, 1101–1106 (2006).
23. Marchowski, D., Jankowiak, Ł., Ławicki, Ł., Wysocki, D. & Chylarecki, P. Fishery bycatch is among the most important threats to the European population of Greater Scaup Aythya Bird Conserv Int 30, 176–193 (2020).
24. Cervencl, & Alvarez Fernandez, S. Winter distribution of Greater Scaup Aythya marila in relation to available food resources. J Sea Res 73, 41–48 (2012).
25. Spaulding, F., Mclaughlin, J. F., Glenn, T. C. & Winker, K. Estimating movement rates between Eurasian and North American birds that are vectors of avian Avian Dis 66, 155–164 (2022).
26. Drever, C. et al. Population vulnerability to climate change linked to timing of breeding in boreal ducks. Glob Chang Biol 18, 480–492 (2012).
27. Fox, D. et al. Current and Potential Threats to Nordic Duck Populations — a Horizon Scanning Exercise. Annales Zoologici Fennici vol. 52 (2015).

European White-fronted Goose

Species trend

Research required

• Wintering surveys to better understand local and national distribution and
• Submission of bag data is required to better inform harvest estimates (data can be submitted to GWCT National Gamebag Census or BASC Green Shoots Bagged It).
• Shooters should support the BASC wing survey to enable better understanding of adult:juvenile harvest ratios.
• Increased ringing, ring resighting and ring recovery reporting

Shooting restrictions

• Two European white-fronts per person, per day, bag limit
• It is the responsibility of all who shoot to correctly identify your If in doubt, don’t shoot.

Habitat management

• Collaboration with agricultural managers in key feeding areas to ensure there is adequate feeding ground available.

Stage 2 assessment

Species summary

Species conservation status (see Table 1)

Population dynamics

Hunting and harvest

Pressures, action and research

References

1. Eda, et al. Phylogenetic relationship of the Greater White-fronted Goose Anser albifrons subspecies wintering in the Palaearctic region. Ornithol Sci vol. 12 (2013).
2. Hearn, D. Greater White-fronted Goose Anser albifrons albifrons (Baltic-North Sea population) in Britain 1960/61 – 1999/2000. (2004).
3. Mitchell, et al. Trends in goose numbers wintering in Britain and Ireland, 1995 to 2008. Ornis Svec 20, 128–143 (2010).
4. Woodward, I. D., Frost, T. M., Hammond, M. J. & Austin, G. E. Wetland Bird Survey Alerts 2016/2017: Changes in numbers of wintering waterbirds in the Constituent Countries of the United Kingdom, Special Protection Areas (SPAs), Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) and Areas of Special Scientific interest (ASSIs). BTO Research Report 721. bto.org/webs-reporting-alerts (2019).
5. Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) – Agreement Text and Annexes As amended by MOP8. (2022).
6. BirdLife European Red List of Birds. https://op.europa.eu/en/publications. (2021) doi:10.2779/967570.
7. Fox, D. et al. The rise and fall of Greenland White-fronted goose: A case study in international conservation. British Birds 99, 242–261 (2006).
8. Stanbury, et al. The status of our bird populations: the fifth Birds of Conservation Concern in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands and Isle of Man and second IUCN Red List assessment of extinction risk for Great Britain. British Birds 114, 723–747 (2021).
9. BirdLife Anser albifrons. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22679881A85980652.en (2016) doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016.
10. Woodward, et al. APEP 4: Population estimates of birds in Great Britain and the United Kingdom. British Birds 113, 69–104 (2020).
11. Wetlands International. Waterbird Populations Portal. wpp.wetlands.org (2022).
12. Frost, T. M. et al. Waterbirds in the UK 2019/20: The Wetland Bird Survey. (2021).
13. Key concepts of Article 7(4) of Directive 79/409/EEC: Period of reproduction and prenuptial migration of Annex II bird species in the 28 Member States. (2014).
14. Aebischer, N. J. Fifty-year trends in UK hunting bags of birds and mammals, and calibrated estimation of national bag size, using GWCT’s National Gamebag Eur J Wildl Res 65, (2019).
15. Ellis, & Cameron, T. An initial assessment of the sustainability of waterbird harvest in the United Kingdom. bioRxiv (2022).
16. Stroud, A., Fox, A. D., Urquhart, C. & Francis, I. S. International Single Species Action Plan for the Conservation of the Greenland White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons flavirostris). www.snh.org.uk/speciesactionframework/default.asp (2012).
17. Aloupi, M., Kazantzidis, S., Akriotis, T., Bantikou, E. & Hatzidaki, V. O. Lesser White-fronted (Anser erythropus) and Greater White-fronted (A. albifrons) Geese wintering in Greek wetlands are not threatened by Pb through shot ingestion. Science of the Total Environment 527–528, 279–286 (2015).
18. Stichting BirdLife Europe, BirdLife International & Article 12 EU population status assessments: Annex B – Bird species’ status and trends report format (Article 12) for the period 2013 – 2018. (2020).
19. BirdLife Anser anser. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018- (2018) doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018.
20. Fox, D. & Glahder, C. M. Post-moult distribution and abundance of white-fronted geese and Canada geese in West Greenland in 2007. Polar Res 29, 413–420 (2010).
21. Yin, et al. No evidence that migratory geese disperse avian influenza viruses from breeding to wintering ground. PLoS One 12, (2017).

Eurasian Woodcock

Scolopax rusticola

2023-2028 Recommendation: delay shooting until late November where resident woodcock are present.

Species trend

The UK hosts a breeding population of woodcock which remains resident all year round, as well as hosting a large migrant over-wintering population. The breeding population has shown substantial declines in its range and size over the last 20 plus years. The migrant wintering population has, in contrast, increased over the last 25 years; this is reflected in the European IUCN listing of ‘least concern’.

Changes in climate, predation and habitat availability in the UK are likely driving the decline in the resident UK population and a number of conservation recommendations have been made by the GWCT to reduce negative impacts on the declining UK breeding population. Taking these into consideration, BASC has provided the following recommendations.

Research required

• Breeding and wintering surveys to better understand local and national distribution and abundance.
• Submission of bag data to better inform harvest estimates
• (data can be submitted to the GWCT National Gamebag Census or BASC Green Shoots Bagged It).
• Hunters should support the BASC wing survey to enable better understanding of adult:juvenile and male:female harvest ratios.

Shooting restrictions

• Should avoid shooting woodcock in areas where resident woodcock are present until the major fall of migrant woodcock in late November.
• Show restraint, even when resident birds are Shoot what you need, not what you can.
• Shoot flightlines with
• Curb shooting in severe

Habitat management

• Targeted habitat creation and management for both breeding and wintering populations is required.
  • Create or widen woodland rides to provide breaks in the tree Ideally, rides should be at least 8m wide.
  • Mow rides and clearings to produce accessible grassy feeding and breeding display sites.
  • Create and reinstate clearings and young woodland using a little-but-often Over time this creates a mosaic of woodland types and ages.
  • Periodically remove marginal vegetation along sections of ditch or pond edges where these features occur within or close to woodlands.
  • Create wet features that retain ground moisture into late
• Pest and predator
• Refuge provision, either for set periods of time (temporal) or over dedicated areas of land (spatial), dependent on-site requirements.

Stage 2 assessment

Species summary

Official UK population trends of woodcock (particularly wintering population estimates) are limited due to the efficacy of the generic survey methods used. It is acknowledged, therefore, that woodcock numbers are being underestimated by surveyors1. GWCT-BTO species-specific surveys between 2003 and 2013 reported a 29% decline in breeding birds1.

Drivers of decline in the breeding populations size and extent are unclear but are likely a result of climate change, changes to habitat (especially woodland) management,

predation and possibly disturbance and shooting¹. Estimates of wintering population trends are not available and considered hard to estimate due to survey difficulty.

Species conservation status (see Table 1)

The breeding (resident) UK population shows a decline of 29% between 2003-2013¹ (the next major survey will be in 2023²). This is coupled with a range decline, particularly in the south and west of the UK^1,3. It is however, important to note that this breeding population represents a very small proportion of the flyway’s breeding population⁴. However, in parallel, the large migrant wintering population is displaying a 25-year increase of 113%⁵. Woodcock have a large and widespread population across the entirety of their range and therefore, outside the UK, retain a favourable conservation status^6,7. Although facing local pressures at breeding and wintering ground due to land use changes and climate change1,^8–10, their distribution and migration routes are diffuse¹¹, making the global population resilient^12,13.

Table 1. Species conservation status across different scales. *It has been highlighted by BASC that such automatic linkage between IUCN status and levels of protection by AEWA is directly contrary to the IUCN’s advice on the use of its list. **Due to its cryptic nature this species cannot be surveyed using standard methods. A woodcock-specific survey has replaced this.

Population dynamics

Woodcock populations are often estimated by the number of ‘roding’ (displaying) males during the breeding season^1,16. This survey data is then extrapolated to estimate overall population size. Winter surveys are more challenging due to the cryptic nature of woodcock and absence of displaying. Female woodcock rear broods alone, using different habitat for incubation and foraging¹⁰. It is unclear whether reproductive success and recruitment are driving the breeding population decline, or if it is a result of poor adult survival. These aspects of woodcock population dynamics therefore require further investigation.

Hunting and harvest (see Table 2)

Woodcock shooting seasons in the UK are compliant with the Key Concepts of Article 7(4)¹⁷. Woodcock are a popular species to hunt in the UK with some of the highest bag numbers of all recorded quarry species¹⁸. Bag numbers have remained relatively stable since the 90’s but have been gradually decreasing since 2004¹⁹. It is unclear if this relates to voluntary restraint or a population decline. Woodcock are estimated to have a sustainable harvest in the UK for both migrant and resident birds, however the estimates of Sustainable Harvest Index (SHI) have wide confidence intervals and require more accurate population estimates and understanding of origin and age composition of birds shot²⁰. Woodcock are legally hunted in 26 countries in Europe. Bag data from 21 of these countries estimate the total harvest to be over 970,000 birds²¹. Bag sizes were historically largest in France, Greece, Ireland, the UK and Italy²².

Table 2. Estimated sustainability of species harvest in the UK. Table from Ellis & Cameron 2022.

Little is known about the impact of disturbance on woodcock, either in the form of hunting or other outdoor activities²³. It is suggested that hunting mortality may locally impact the over-winter survival of woodcock²⁴ but this is hard to quantify, especially in the UK where migrant birds substantially outnumber residents¹. Overall, woodcock appear to retain site fidelity after disturbance if there is access to high quality foraging areas²³, highlighting the importance of meadow and grassland bordering woodland habitat.

Pressures, action and research

Pressures

Climate change is considered a driver in range shifts and survival of woodcock and other woodland birds⁸. Within the UK this is likely exacerbated by agricultural practices to increase yield, such as drainage of soil, increased fertilisers and loss of pasture and grassland9. Forestry management such as ride and glade creation and coppicing has been replaced by commercial timber production. Reduced variation of age structure in woodland and increased woodland fragmentation is also considered a major driver of woodcock decline^1,10. Alongside habitat changes driven by deer as well as humans, increased predation by mustelids, feral cats, foxes and raptors is also thought to play a role in the species decline^23,25–27.

Practical action

Habitat restoration, through adaptation of agricultural and forestry activities is the primary action recommended to support woodcock populations^10,28,29. Many of these actions require financial incentivisation and it is possible improvements may be seen in coming years due to increased tree planting for carbon capture. Current action also includes voluntary restraint of shooting early in the season and predator control³⁰. However, the impact of these activities (or change in their intensity) has not been documented.

Research action

Data collection on demographics of shot birds/hunting effort can be improved through increased participation in the National Game Bag Census (GWCT) and Wing Survey (BASC). Increased survey effort of winter and breeding populations across the UK and Ireland will also help establish on a long-term, species-specific dataset² (BTO/GWCT). Focused research is required to build on some of the more complex aspects considered to impact woodcock such as predation²⁵ and the associated predator control, disturbance by various recreational activities²³, the impact of deer damage on woodcock and their habitat^1,10,26 and the role of hunting relative to other forms of mortality^28,31.

References

1. Heward, J. et al. Current status and recent trend of the Eurasian Woodcock Scolopax rusticola as a breeding bird in Britain. Bird Study 62, 535–551 (2015).
2. GWCT & BTO. GWCT/BTO Breeding Woodcock Survey 2021. (2021).
3. Balmer, D. E. et al. Bird Atlas 2007-11: the breeding and wintering birds of Britain and Ireland. (2013).
4. Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) – Agreement Text and Annexes As amended by MOP8. (2022).
5. Frost, T. M. et al. Waterbirds in the UK 2019/20: The Wetland Bird Survey. (2021).
6. BirdLife European Red List of Birds. https://op.europa.eu/en/publications. (2021) doi:10.2779/967570.
7. BirdLife International. Scolopax rusticola (amended version of 2016 assessment). (2019).
8. Leech, I. & Crick, H. Q. P. Influence of climate change on the abundance, distribution and phenology of woodland bird species in temperate regions. Ibis 149, 128–145 (2007).
9. Duriez, et al. Habitat selection of the Eurasian woodcock in winter in relation to earthworms availability. Biol Conserv 122, 479–490 (2005).
10. Hoodless, N. & Hirons, G. J. M. Habitat selection and foraging behaviour of breeding Eurasian Woodcock Scolopax rusticola : a comparison between contrasting landscapes. Ibis (2007).
11. EURING Migration Migratory connectivity analysis by EURING Migration Atlas – Scolopax rusticola (05290).
12. Cohen, B. et al. Quantifying the strength of migratory connectivity. Methods Ecol Evol 9, 513–524 (2018).
13. Powell, A. Origins and non-breeding ecology of Eurasian woodcock. (Oxford University, 2013).
14. Stanbury, et al. The status of our bird populations: the fifth Birds of Conservation Concern in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands and Isle of Man and second IUCN Red List assessment of extinction risk for Great Britain. British Birds 114, 723–747 (2021).
15. Woodward, et al. APEP 4: Population estimates of birds in Great Britain and the United Kingdom. British Birds 113, 69–104 (2020).
16. Hoodless, N., Lang, D., Aebischer, N. J., Fuller, R. J. & Ewald, J. A. Densities and population estimates of breeding Eurasian Woodcock sco/opax rusticola in Britain in 2003. Bird Study vol. 56 15–25 Preprint at https://doi.org/10.1080/00063650802674768 (2009).
17. Key concepts of Article 7(4) of Directive 79/409/EEC: Period of reproduction and prenuptial migration of Annex II bird species in the 28 Member States. (2014).
18. Aebischer, N. J. Fifty-year trends in UK hunting bags of birds and mammals, and calibrated estimation of national bag size, using GWCT’s National Gamebag Eur J Wildl Res 65, (2019).
19. Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust. Bird bags – summary trends: Woodcock Scolopax rusticola. https://www.gwct.org.uk/research/long-term-monitoring/national-gamebag-census/bird-bags-summary-trends/woodcock/ (2006).
20. Ellis, & Cameron, T. An initial assessment of the sustainability of waterbird harvest in the United Kingdom. bioRxiv (2022).
21. Hirschfeld, A., Attard, G. & Scott, L. Bird hunting in Europe: an analysis of bag figures and the potential impact on the conservation of threatened British Birds 112, 153–166 (2019).
22. Hirschfield, A. & Heyd, A. Mortality of migratory birds caused by hunting in Europe: bag statistics and proposals for the conservation of birds and animal Ber. Vogelschutz 42, 47–74 (2005).
23. Ferrand, , Aubry, P., Landry, P. & Priol, P. Responses of Eurasian woodcock Scolopax rusticola to simulated hunting disturbance. Wildlife Biol 19, 19–29 (2013).
24. Duriez, , Fritz, H., Said, S. & Ferrand, Y. Wintering behaviour and spatial ecology of Eurasian Woodcock Scolopax rusticola in western France. Ibis vol. 147 (2005).
25. Braña, F., Prieto, L. & González-Quirós, P. Habitat change and timing of dusk flight in the Eurasian woodcock: a trade-off between feeding and predator avoidance? Zool. Fennici 47, 206–214 (2010).
26. Holt, & Fuller, R. An experimental assessment of the effect of deer on use of young coppiced woodland by Eurasian Woodcocks in winter. Wader Study Group Bulletin 120, 124–127 (2013).
27. Ferrand, Y. Sixth European Woodcock and Snipe Workshop. in Proceedings of an International Symposium of the Wetlands International Woodcock and Snipe Specialist Group 25–27 November 2003, Nantes, France. International Wader Studies 13, Wageningen, The Netherlands 114 (Australasian Wader Studies Group, 2006).
28. Stichting BirdLife Europe, BirdLife International & Article 12 EU population status assessments: Annex B – Bird species’ status and trends report format (Article 12) for the period 2013 – 2018. (2020).
29. Bellamy, E. et al. Impact of woodland agri-environment management on woodland structure and target bird species. J Environ Manage 316, (2022).
30. Brewin, , Hoodless, A. N., Heward, C. J. & Hopgood, A. 2022. Conserving Our Woodcock: Research-based measures to help the UK’s resident population. www.gwct.org.uk (2022).
31. Duriez, O., Eraud, C., Barbraud, C. & Ferrand, Y. Factors affecting population dynamics of Eurasian woodcocks wintering in France: Assessing the efficiency of a hunting-free Biol Conserv 122, 89–97 (2005).
32. UK Government and Parliament Ban the Shooting of Critically Endangered Woodcocks: Closed petition. https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/595483?reveal_response=yes (2021).
33. UK Government and Parliament Limit the shooting season of woodcock: Petition. https://petition.parliament.uk/petitions/619615 (2022).

Common Snipe

Species trend

Research required

• Focused studies on snipe as opposed to lowland waders, as snipe are often missed in traditional survey techniques.
• Submission of bag data is required to better inform harvest estimates (data can be submitted to GWCT National Gamebag Census or BASC Green Shoots Bagged It).
• Shooters should support the BASC wing survey to enable better understanding of adult:juvenile ratios.
• Increased ringing, ring resighting, and ring recovery reporting
• Research into habitat factors that may be influencing snipe declines, such as food
• Greater understanding of recruitment is required to help disentangle habitat-mediated pressures from productivity issues.

Shooting restrictions

• Should avoid shooting common snipe in areas where resident breeding snipe are present until 1 September
• Show restraint, even when resident birds are Shoot what you need, not what you can
• Curb shooting in severe

Habitat management

• Habitat management for both breeding and wintering populations is required:
  • Raise water levels to create wetter
  • Reduce grazing pressure around breeding
  • Scrape creation and rush
• Pest and predator
• Refuge provision; minimise disturbance either for set periods of time (temporal), or over dedicated areas of land (spatial) dependent on site requirements.

Stage 2 assessment

Species summary

Species conservation status (see Table 1)

Population dynamics

Pressures, action and research

References

1. Frost, T. M. et al. Waterbirds in the UK 2019/20: The Wetland Bird Survey. (2021).
2. Harris, S. J. et al. The Breeding Bird Survey 2021. BTO Research Report 745. bto.org (2022).
3. Birdlife Gallinago gallinago (amended version of 2017 assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22693097A155504420.en (2019) doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22693097A155504420.en.
4. BirdLife European Red List of Birds. https://op.europa.eu/en/publications. (2021) doi:10.2779/967570.
5. Anas The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019: e.T22680301A153882797. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22680301A153882797.en (2019) doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019.
6. Smart, J., Amar, A., O’Brien, M., Grice, P. & Smith, K. Changing land management of lowland wet grasslands of the UK: Impacts on snipe abundance and habitat Anim Conserv 11, 339–351 (2008).
7. Kelly, L. A., Douglas, D. J. T., Shurmer, M. P. & Evans, K. L. Upland rush management advocated by agri-environment schemes increases predation of artificial wader Anim Conserv 24, 646–658 (2021).
8. Fletcher, , Aebischer, N. J., Baines, D., Foster, R. & Hoodless, A. N. Changes in breeding success and abundance of ground-nesting moorland birds in relation to the experimental deployment of legal predator control. Journal of Applied Ecology 47, 263–272 (2010).
9. Ludwig, C., Roos, S. & Baines, D. Responses of breeding waders to restoration of grouse management on a moor in South-West Scotland. J Ornithol 160, 789–797 (2019).
10. Stanbury, et al. The status of our bird populations: the fifth Birds of Conservation Concern in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands and Isle of Man and second IUCN Red List assessment of extinction risk for Great Britain. British Birds 114, 723–747 (2021).
11. Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) – Agreement Text and Annexes As amended by MOP8. (2022).
12. Woodward, et al. APEP 4: Population estimates of birds in Great Britain and the United Kingdom. British Birds 113, 69–104 (2020).
13. Key concepts of Article 7(4) of Directive 79/409/EEC: Period of reproduction and prenuptial migration of Annex II bird species in the 28 Member States. (2014).
14. Kahlert, J., Fox, A. D., Heldbjerg, H., Asferg, T. & Sunde, P. Functional Responses of Human Hunters to Their Prey-Why Harvest Statistics may not Always Reflect Changes in Prey Population Wildlife Biol 21, 294–302 (2015).
15. Aebischer, N. J. Fifty-year trends in UK hunting bags of birds and mammals, and calibrated estimation of national bag size, using GWCT’s National Gamebag Eur J Wildl Res 65, (2019).
16. Ellis, & Cameron, T. An initial assessment of the sustainability of waterbird harvest in the United Kingdom. bioRxiv (2022).
17. Hirschfield, A. & Heyd, A. Mortality of migratory birds caused by hunting in Europe: bag statistics and proposals for the conservation of birds and animal Ber. Vogelschutz 42, 47–74 (2005).
18. Bregnballe, , Madsen, J. & Rasmussen, P. A. F. Effects of temporal and spatial hunting control in waterbird reserves. Biol Conserv 119, 93–104 (2004).
19. Meissner, Ringing recoveries of the common snipe (Gallinago gallinago) caught during autumn migration in the Gulf of Gdansk region. The Ring 24, (2002).
20. Musgrove, J. et al. Overwinter population estimates of British waterbirds. British Birds 104, 364–397 (2011).
21. Péron, , Ferrand, Y., Leray, G. & Gimenez, O. Waterbird demography as indicator of wetland health: The French-wintering common snipe population. Biol Conserv 164, 123–128 (2013).
22. Stichting BirdLife Europe, BirdLife International & Article 12 EU population status assessments: Annex B – Bird species’ status and trends report format (Article 12) for the period 2013 – 2018. (2020).
23. Colhoun, , Mawhinney, K. & Peach, W. J. Population estimates and changes in abundance of breeding waders in Northern Ireland up to 2013. Bird Study 62, 394–403 (2015).
24. Hoodless, N., Ewald, J. A. & Baines, D. Habitat use and diet of Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago breeding on moorland in northern England. Bird Study 54, 182–191 (2007).
25. Fuller, J., Ward, E., Hird, D. & Brown, A. F. Declines of ground-nesting birds in two areas of upland farmland in the south pennines of england: We present evidence of large declines in numbers of breeding waders and passerines in some upland areas since the 1970s. Bird Study 49, 146–152 (2002).
26. Macdonald, M. A. & Bolton, M. Predation on wader nests in Europe. Ibis vol. 150 (2008).
27. Roodbergen, , van der Werf, B. & Hötker, H. Revealing the contributions of reproduction and survival to the Europe-wide decline in meadow birds: Review and meta-analysis. Journal of Ornithology vol. 153 53–74 Preprint at https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-011-0733-y (2012).
28. Laidlaw, A. et al. Vegetation structure influences predation rates of early nests in subarctic breeding waders. Ibis 162, 1225–1236 (2020).
29. Rodrigues, M., Rodrigues, M. & Gonçalves, D. Breeding phenology and success of the Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago in the Azores. Bird Study 66, 441–451 (2019).
30. Jellesmark, et al. The effect of conservation interventions on the abundance of breeding waders within nature reserves in the United Kingdom. Ibis (2022) doi:10.1111/ibi.13106.
31. Buchanan, M., Pearce-Higgins, J. W., Douglas, D. J. T. & Grant, M. C. Quantifying the importance of multi-scale management and environmental variables on moorland bird abundance. Ibis 159, 744–756 (2017).
32. Holton N & Allcorn The effectiveness of opening up rush patches on encouraging breeding common snipe Gallinago gallinago at Rogersceugh Farm, Campfield Marsh RSPB reserve, Cumbria, England. Conservation Evidence vol. 3 www.ConservationEvidence.com (2006).
33. Hoodless, N., Inglis, J. G. & Baines, D. Effects of weather and timing on counts of breeding Snipe Gallinago gallinago. Bird Study 53, 205–212 (2006).

Eurasian Coot

Species trend

Research required

• Breeding and wintering surveys to better understand local and national distribution and abundance.
• Submission of bag data to better inform harvest estimates (data can be submitted to the GWCT National Gamebag Census or BASC Green Shoots Bagged It).
• Shooters should support the BASC wing survey to enable better understanding of adult:juvenile harvest ratios.
• Increased ringing and ring resighting effort to improve understanding of migratory

Shooting restrictions

• Should show
• Site-based considerations

Habitat management

• General wetland creation and management will benefit both breeding and wintering
• A mosaic habitat of dense cover, open water and clearings is required to provide safe refuge and feeding areas.
• Ensure suitable breeding sites have ramp-like areas to enable chicks to leave the water easily.
• Pest and predator
• Refuge provision, either for set periods of time (temporal) or over dedicated areas of land (spatial), dependent on site requirements.
• Nesting support (for example: fencing, duck nest tubes, provision of maintained islands).

Stage 2 assessment

Species summary

Species conservation status (see Table 1)

Population dynamics

Hunting and harvest

Pressures, action and research

References

1. Robinson, A., Leech, D. I. & Clark, J. A. The Online Demography Report: Bird ringing and nest recording in Britain & Ireland in 2021. (2022).
2. Harris, S. J. et al. The Breeding Bird Survey 2021. BTO Research Report 745. bto.org (2022).
3. Frost, T. M. et al. Waterbirds in the UK 2019/20: The Wetland Bird Survey. (2021).
4. Woodward, D., Frost, T. M., Hammond, M. J. & Austin, G. E. Wetland Bird Survey Alerts 2016/2017: Changes in numbers of wintering waterbirds in the Constituent Countries of the United Kingdom, Special Protection Areas (SPAs), Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) and Areas of Special Scientific interest (ASSIs). BTO Research Report 721. www.bto.org/webs-reporting-alerts (2019).
5. BirdLife European Red List of Birds. https://op.europa.eu/en/publications. (2021) doi:10.2779/967570.
6. BirdLife Fulica atra. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019- (2019) doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019.
7. Stanbury, et al. The status of our bird populations: the fifth Birds of Conservation Concern in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands and Isle of Man and second IUCN Red List assessment of extinction risk for Great Britain. British Birds 114, 723–747 (2021).
8. Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) – Agreement Text and Annexes As amended by MOP8. (2022).
9. Woodward, et al. APEP 4: Population estimates of birds in Great Britain and the United Kingdom. British Birds 113, 69–104 (2020).
10. Guillemain, , Devineau, O., Simon, G. & Gauthier-Clerc, M. Common but poorly known: Information derived from 32 years of ringing Coot Fulica atra in the Camargue, southern France. Ringing and Migration 29, 10–18 (2014).
11. Rȩk, Testing the relationship between clutch size and brood size in the Coot (Fulica atra). J Ornithol 151, 163–168 (2010).
12. Brinkhof, & Cave, A. J. Food supply and seasonal variation in breeding success : an experiment in the European coot. Proceedings of the Royal Society London B 264, 291–296 (1997).
13. Key concepts of Article 7(4) of Directive 79/409/EEC: Period of reproduction and prenuptial migration of Annex II bird species in the 28 Member States. (2014).
14. Holm, E., Laursen, K. & Clausen, P. The feeding ecology and distribution of common coots Fulica atra are affected by hunting taking place in adjacent areas. Bird Study 58, 321–329 (2011).
15. Evans, M. & Day, K. R. Hunting disturbance on a large shallow lake: the effectiveness of waterfowl refuges. Ibis vol. 144 (2002).
16. Draulans, & Vanherck, L. Food and foraging of Coot Fulica atra on fish ponds during autumn migration. Wildfowl 38, 63–69 (1987).
17. Irwin, & O’halloran, J. The wintering behaviour of coot Fulica atra l. at Cork Lough, South-west Ireland. Biology and environment: Proceedings of the royal Irish academy 97B, 157–162 (1997).
18. Quan, -C., Wen, X. & Yang, X. Effects of human activities on migratory waterbirds at Lashihai Lake, China. Biol Conserv 108, 273–279 (2002).
19. Mateo, , Guitart, R. & Green, A. J. Determinants of Lead Shot, Rice, and Grit Ingestion in Ducks and Coots. J Wildl Manage 64, 939–947 (2000).
20. Binkowski, J., Sawicka-Kapusta, K., Szarek, J., Strzyzewska, E. & Felsmann, M. Histopathology of liver and kidneys of wild living Mallards Anas platyrhynchos and Coots Fulica atra with considerable concentrations of lead and cadmium. Science of the Total Environment 450–451, 326–333 (2013).
21. Brzeziński, M., Natorff, M., Zalewski, A. & Z̈mihorski, M. Numerical and behavioral responses of waterfowl to the invasive American mink: A conservation Biol Conserv 147, 68–78 (2012).
22. Brezezinski, & Marzec, M. The origin, dispersal and distribution of the American mink mustela vison in Poland. Acta Theriol (Warsz) 48, 505–514 (2003).
23. Rȩk, Are changes in predatory species composition and breeding performance responsible for the decline of Coots fulica atra in Milicz Ponds reserve (SW poland)? Acta Ornithol 44, 45–52 (2009).
24. Nieoczym, & Kloskowski, J. Habitat selection and reproductive success of coot Fulica atra on ponds under different fish size and density conditions. Hydrobiologia 820, 267–279 (2018).
25. Halupka, , Czyż, B. & Macias Dominguez, C. M. The effect of climate change on laying dates, clutch size and productivity of Eurasian Coots Fulica atra. Int J Biometeorol 64, 1857–1863 (2020).
26. Rönkä, T. H. et al. Environmental changes and population trends of breeding waterfowl in northern Baltic Sea. Annales Zoologici Fennici vol. 42 (2005).
27. Stichting BirdLife Europe, BirdLife International & Article 12 EU population status assessments: Annex B – Bird species’ status and trends report format (Article 12) for the period 2013 – 2018. (2020).
28. Walesiak, , Górecki, G. & Brzeziński, M. Recovery of Eurasian Coot Fulica atra and Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus Breeding Populations in an Area Invaded by the American Mink Neovison vison. Acta Ornithol 54, 73 (2019).

Common Moorhen

Species trend

Research required

• Breeding and wintering surveys to better understand local and national distribution and abundance.
• Submission of bag data to better inform harvest estimates (data can be submitted to the GWCT National Gamebag Census or BASC Green Shoots Bagged It).
• Shooters should support the BASC wing survey to enable better understanding of adult: juvenile harvest ratios.
• Increased ringing and ring resighting effort to improve understanding of migratory

Shooting restrictions

• Should show
• Site-based considerations

Habitat management

• General wetland creation and management will benefit both breeding and wintering
• A mosaic habitat of dense cover, open water and clearings is required to provide safe refuge and feeding areas.
• Ensure suitable breeding sites have ramp-like areas to enable chicks to leave the water
• Pest and predator
• Refuge provision, either for set periods of time (temporal) or over dedicated areas of land (spatial), dependent on site requirements.
• Nesting support (for example: fencing, duck nest tubes, provision of maintained islands).

Stage 2 assessment

Species summary

Species conservation status (see Table 1)

Population dynamics

Hunting and harvest

Pressures, action and research

References

1. Haraszthy, L. Intra-and interspecific nest parasitism of Common Moorhen (review of cases and new data). Ornis Hungarica 26 95–101 Preprint at https://doi.org/10.1515/orhu-2018-0007 (2018).
2. Samraoui, , Alfarhan, A. H. & Samraoui, B. Status and breeding ecology of the Common Moorhen Gallinula chloropus in Algeria. Ostrich 84, 137–144 (2013).
3. Forman, D. W., Brain, P. F. & Brain, P. F. Reproductive strategies used by moorhens (Gallinula chloropus) colonising an artificial wetland habitat in South Journal of Natural Histo… Article in Journal of Natural History https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262412829 (2004).
4. Taylor, The influence of watercourse management on Moorhen breeding biology. British Birds 77, 144–148 (1984).
5. Harris, S. J. et al. The Breeding Bird Survey 2021. BTO Research Report 745. bto.org (2022).
6. Frost, T. M. et al. Waterbirds in the UK 2019/20: The Wetland Bird Survey. (2021).
7. BirdLife European Red List of Birds. https://op.europa.eu/en/publications. (2021) doi:10.2779/967570.
8. Stanbury, et al. The status of our bird populations: the fifth Birds of Conservation Concern in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands and Isle of Man and second IUCN Red List assessment of extinction risk for Great Britain. British Birds 114, 723–747 (2021).
9. Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) – Agreement Text and Annexes As amended by MOP8. (2022).
10. BirdLife Gallinula chloropus (amended version of 2016 assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T62120190A155506651.en (2019) doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T62120190A155506651.en.
11. Woodward, et al. APEP 4: Population estimates of birds in Great Britain and the United Kingdom. British Birds 113, 69–104 (2020).
12. Gibbons, W. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Brood parasitism and cooperative nesting in the moorhen, GMlinula chloropus. Behav Ecol Sociobiol vol. 19 (1986).
13. Adam, , Musilová, Z., Musil, P., Zouhar, J. & Romportl, D. Long-Term Changes in Habitat Selection of Wintering Waterbirds: High Importance of Cold Weather Refuge Sites. Acta Ornithol 50, 127–138 (2015).
14. Talbi, , Samraoui, F., Samraoui, B., Zullo, F. & Battisti, C. Habitat selection of Coot (Fulica atra) and Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) in a remnant Mediterranean wetland (Italy): Implications for conservation. Lakes Reserv 25, 413–418 (2020).
15. Lai, C. H., Lin, S. H., Tsai, C. Y. & Chen, S. H. Identifying farm pond habitat suitability for the Common Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus): A conservation-perspective Sustainability (Switzerland) 10, (2018).
16. Wang, , Ma, Y. fei & You, X. yi. An innovative approach to identify environmental variables with conservation priorities in habitat patches. J Environ Manage 292, (2021).
17. Key concepts of Article 7(4) of Directive 79/409/EEC: Period of reproduction and prenuptial migration of Annex II bird species in the 28 Member States. (2014).
18. Hirschfield, A. & Heyd, A. Mortality of migratory birds caused by hunting in Europe: bag statistics and proposals for the conservation of birds and animal Ber. Vogelschutz 42, 47–74 (2005).
19. Case, J. & Sanders, S. J. Priority Information Needs for American Coots, Purple Gallinules and Common Moorhens: A Funding Strategy. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usfwspubs (2010).
20. Eddleman, R., Knopf, F. L., Meanley, B., Reid, F. A. & Zembal~, R. Conservation of North American rallids. Wilson Bull 100, 458–475 (1988).
21. Raftovich US Fish, v et al. Migratory Bird Hunting Activity and Harvest During the 2009 and 2010 Hunting Seasons. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usfwspubs (2011).
22. Stichting BirdLife Europe, BirdLife International & Article 12 EU population status assessments: Annex B – Bird species’ status and trends report format (Article 12) for the period 2013 – 2018. (2020).
23. Kang, et al. Pathogenicity and transmissibility of three avian influenza A (H5N6) viruses isolated from wild birds. Journal of Infection 76, 286–294 (2018).
24. Dale, Population size and trend, and habitat selection of Common Moorhens (Gallinula chloropus) in Oslo and Akershus, southeastern Norway. Ornis Norv 44, 1–11 (2021).
25. Mcrae, B. A Rise in Nest Predation Enhances the Frequency of Intraspecific Brood Parasitism in a Moorhen Population. Source: Journal of Animal Ecology vol. 66 (1997).

Golden Plover

Pluvialis apricaria

2023-2028 Recommendation: Current level of harvest and conservation effort to continue. No additional action required.

Research required

• Monitoring the long-term impacts of afforestation in upland areas should be undertaken to understand long term impacts.
• Historic bag returns and the submission of current bag data to better inform harvest estimates (data can be submitted to the Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust (GWCT) National Gamebag Census or BASC Green Shoots Bagged It).

Shooting restrictions

• None

Habitat management

• Moorland management targeted at red grouse and peatland restoration appears to benefit the species, particularly creation of habitat mosaics.
• Creation of marshy areas in moorland encourages damp areas where plover chicks can feed.
• Targeted predator control in areas where known breeding populations

Stage 2 assessment

Species summary

The conservation status of the species remains favourable across its range. Marginal declines in some populations are thought to be driven by habitat changes, particularly afforestation and loss of breeding habitat^5-8. Climate change is also considered a major contributing factor to plover population trends in recent years^9-11. Game bag numbers are small in the UK and there is no evident hunting-mediated driver of decline. Removal of the species from Schedule II may in fact result in a reduced incentive to undertake management that benefits this species.

Plover populations and trends within the UK and Europe are in a relatively stable position. However, with increasing impacts of climate change and continued agricultural change and afforestation, habitat changes are a threat to plover populations. Plover show broadly positive responses to moorland management for red grouse and agricultural management for all waders. Therefore, continued support and focus on restoration of breeding and foraging habitat in the uplands is important in retaining the species positive conservation status.

Species conservation status (see Table 1)

The European golden plover (herein plover) is a breeding resident in the UK whose population is boosted by over-wintering individuals from three different flyway populations (NW Europe, Iceland and UK/Denmark)¹. The UK breeding population appears to be stable (+0.18% between 2010-2020), which is the result of declines in England (-20.48%) and increases in Scotland (+12.77%)2. The wintering population shows broad declines across all UK nations (-14% between 2008/09-2018/19), experienced most severely in Northern Ireland (-36%), followed by Wales (-19%), England (-12%) and Scotland (-10%)³. These declines are likely driven by population trends in migrant populations. Across the rest of its range, which stretches from eastern Europe and north Africa into Russia, the population is thought to be increasing, driving the overall positive global trend^1,4.

Hunting and harvest

The plover shooting seasons in the UK are compliant with the Key Concepts of Article 7(4)¹⁶. Plover have fluctuating bag trends in the UK, however these are quite low overall and the species is not amongst the most popular quarry species (1,300 in 2004, 5,100 in 2012 and 870 in 2016)¹⁷. Given the population size in the UK, this small harvest is likely to be sustainable¹⁸.

However, population estimate for golden plover are considered unreliable, likely due to the large proportion of inland birds missed in WeBS counts¹⁹. There is also limited data available at the flyway-level hunting pressure on plover, however bag numbers historically have been highest in France²⁰.

Plover are sensitive to disturbance and show changes in behaviour as a result of recreation activities such as walking^6,21 and hunting²². Hunting disturbance led to an increased frequency of flight and time spent vigilant, reducing resting time²². This leads to increased energetic costs and may result in reduced body condition²². The impact of such disturbance appears to impact plover during and after the hunting activity²². Other recreational disturbance such as walking off designated paths causes disturbance among plovers and results in their avoidance of paths during the chick-rearing period6. If disturbance during brood-rearing is continuous this is thought to impact chick survival²¹.

Table 1. Species conservation status across different scales. *It has been highlighted by BASC that such automatic linkage between IUCN status and levels of protection by AEWA is directly contrary to the IUCN’s advice on the use of its list.

Pressures, action and research

Pressures

Plover are primarily impacted by changes to habitat management or habitat loss.

Increase in afforestation negatively impacts plover densities, with lower densities near forest edges^5-8. This is likely due to increased predator abundance, including martens, foxes, and crows^5,7. As well as hydrological changes maturing woodland can have on surrounding habitat⁷. This is of particular concern with increasing afforestation programmes in upland areas^5,7,10. Changes in agricultural and moorland management have negatively impacted plover abundance, including reduction in open pasture where plover forage, and reduction of heather burning and sheep grazing, both of which create short sward habitat for plover when well managed^9,23. Development, particularly that of wind farms, has been shown to reduce the abundance of plover within close proximity to operational turbines1^1,24–26.

However, this was not shown to affect overall hatching and fledging success^24,27. Climate

change is considered a major contributing factor to plover population trends in recent years^9–11. Advance in plover laying dates, which is already occurring, is expected to continue and may result in reduced survival as chick hatching becomes mis-matched with food availability (primarily craneflies) ²⁸. Milder winters will likely drive distribution changes²⁹, and more severe winters will result in peaks in wintering numbers in the UK and Ireland as plover try to escape cold weather³⁰.

Practical action

Plover generally show increases in response to moorland management targeted at red grouse or peatland restoration^23,31–33. This includes creation of habitat mosaics comprising grass, rush and mixed age heather in moorland9. Grazing by sheep, at an appropriate pressure, or heather burning to create heterogeneous heather and grass habitat should also be a major part of moorland management prevent vegetation becoming too long and dense for breeding birds ^9,23,33,34. However such habitat management should be accompanied by predator control^9,33,35. Predator control, particularly that of foxes and crows, can enhance breeding success of plover almost three-fold³². Creation of marshy areas in moorland by blocking drainage ditches will encourage rushes and damp areas where plover chicks can feed⁹. This may mitigate against some of the impacts of climate change on cranefly, the primary prey of plover^35,36. Environmental land management schemes should look to retain fields with high invertebrate abundances³⁴. This may also include summer grazing to enable grass sward heights to be <5cm and management of ditches and drainage systems to prevent over-drainage of fields³⁷. Forestry planning should consider buffer zones of >100’s of metres adjacent to planned woodland and the impact plantations may have on open-ground habitat used by birds⁷. Hunting-free reserves with appropriate habitat for foraging and resting will help to mitigate against the disturbance effects of hunting²². Recreational disturbance can also be reduced by ensuring there are defined access points and well-maintained routes for walkers^6,21.

Research action

Better understanding of plover movement across the flyway, through ringing and reporting programmes would be beneficial^10,38. Particularly given possible distribution shifts due to habitat and climate change³⁸ and responses to severe cold weather¹⁰. Planning of windfarms should also continue to monitor the long-term impact of operational turbines on golden plover productivity. Afforestation programmes should also consider the edge-effects of forest creation on plover breeding grounds. The long-term impact of afforestation and potential changing dynamics as woodland matures should be monitored, especially with the increase afforestation programmes in upland areas^5,7,10. Improved recording and reporting of bag statistics will also enable evaluation of harvest sustainability in Europe¹⁰.

References

1. Wetlands International. Waterbird Populations Portal. wpp.wetlands.org (2022).
2. Harris, S. J. et al. The Breeding Bird Survey 2021. BTO Research Report 745. bto.org (2022).
3. Frost, T. M. et al. Waterbirds in the UK 2019/20: The Wetland Bird Survey. (2021).
4. BirdLife Pluvialis apricaria. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016- (2016) doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016.
5. Amar, et al. Exploring the relationships between wader declines and current land-use in the British uplands. Bird Study 58, 13–26 (2011).
6. Finney, K., Pearce-Higgins, J. W. & Yalden, D. W. The effect of recreational disturbance on an upland breeding bird, the golden plover Pluvialis apricaria. Biol Conserv 121, 53–63 (2005).
7. Wilson, D. et al. Modelling edge effects of mature forest plantations on peatland waders informs landscape-scale conservation. Journal of Applied Ecology 51, 204–213 (2014).
8. Hancock, J. M. H., Grant, M. C. & Wilson, J. D. Associations between distance to forest and spatial and temporal variation in abundance of key peatland breeding bird Bird Study 56, 53–64 (2009).
9. Whittingham, J., Percival, S. M. & Brown, A. F. Habitat selection by golden plover Pluvialis apricaria chicks. Basic Appl. Ecol 2, 177–191 (2001).
10. European Directorate-General for the Environment. European Union management plan 2009-2011 Golden plover (Pluvialis apricaria). (2009).
11. Stichting BirdLife Europe, BirdLife International & Article 12 EU population status assessments: Annex B – Bird species’ status and trends report format (Article 12) for the period 2013 – 2018. (2020).
12. Stanbury, et al. The status of our bird populations: the fifth Birds of Conservation Concern in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands and Isle of Man and second IUCN Red List assessment of extinction risk for Great Britain. British Birds 114, 723–747 (2021).
13. BirdLife European Red List of Birds. https://op.europa.eu/en/publications. (2021) doi:10.2779/967570.
14. Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) – Agreement Text and Annexes As amended by MOP8. (2022).
15. Woodward, et al. APEP 4: Population estimates of birds in Great Britain and the United Kingdom. British Birds 113, 69–104 (2020).
16. Key concepts of Article 7(4) of Directive 79/409/EEC: Period of reproduction and prenuptial migration of Annex II bird species in the 28 Member States. (2014).
17. Aebischer, N. J. Fifty-year trends in UK hunting bags of birds and mammals, and calibrated estimation of national bag size, using GWCT’s National Gamebag Eur J Wildl Res 65, (2019).
18. Ellis, & Cameron, T. An initial assessment of the sustainability of waterbird harvest in the United Kingdom. bioRxiv (2022).
19. Frost, et al. Population estimates of wintering waterbirds in Great Britain. British Birds vol. 112 (2019).
20. Hirschfield, A. & Heyd, A. Mortality of migratory birds caused by hunting in Europe: bag statistics and proposals for the conservation of birds and animal Ber. Vogelschutz 42, 47–74 (2005).
21. Pearce-Higgins, W., Finney, S. K., Yalden, D. W. & Langston, R. H. W. Testing the effects of recreational disturbance on two upland breeding waders. Ibis (2007).
22. Casas, , Mougeot, F., Viñuela, J. & Bretagnolle, V. Effects of hunting on the behaviour and spatial distribution of farmland birds: Importance of hunting-free refuges in agricultural areas. Anim Conserv 12, 346–354 (2009).
23. Douglas, J. T. et al. Changes in upland bird abundances show associations with moorland management. Bird Study 64, 242–254 (2017).
24. Sansom, , Pearce-Higgins, J. W. & Douglas, D. J. T. Negative impact of wind energy development on a breeding shorebird assessed with a BACI study design. Ibis 158, 541–555 (2016).
25. Pearce-Higgins, W., Stephen, L., Langston, R. H. W., Bainbridge, I. P. & Bullman, R. The distribution of breeding birds around upland wind farms. Journal of Applied Ecology 46, 1323–1331 (2009).
26. Pearce-Higgins, W., Stephen, L., Langston, R. H. W. & Bright, J. A. Assessing the cumulative impacts of wind farms on peatland birds: a case study of golden plover Pluvialis apricaria in Scotland. vol.4 https://www.mires-and-peat.net/, (2008).
27. Pearce-Higgins, J. W., Stephen, L., Douse, A. & Langston, R. H. W. Greater impacts of wind farms on bird populations during construction than subsequent operation: Results of a multi-site and multi-species analysis. Journal of Applied Ecology 49, 386–394 (2012).
28. Pearce-Higgins, J. W., Yalden, D. W. & Whittingham, M. J. Warmer springs advance the breeding phenology of golden plovers Pluvialis apricaria and their prey (Tipulidae). Oecologia 143, 470–476 (2005).
29. Gillings, , Austin, G. E., Fuller, R. J. & Sutherland, W. J. Distribution shifts in wintering Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria and Lapwing Vanellus vanellus in Britain. Bird Study 53, 274–284 (2006).
30. Machín, P. et al. Individual migration patterns of Eurasian golden plovers Pluvialis apricaria breeding in Swedish Lapland examples of cold spell-induced winter J Avian Biol 46, 634–642 (2015).
31. Baines, D., Redpath, S., Richardson, M. & Thirgood, S. The direct and indirect effects of predation by Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus on trends in breeding birds on a Scottish grouse Ibis 150, 27–36 (2008).
32. Fletcher, , Aebischer, N. J., Baines, D., Foster, R. & Hoodless, A. N. Changes in breeding success and abundance of ground-nesting moorland birds in relation to the experimental deployment of legal predator control. Journal of Applied Ecology 47, 263–272 (2010).
33. Tharme, P., Green, R. E., Baines, D., Bainbridge, I. P. & O’Brien, M. The effect of management for red grouse shooting on the population density of breeding birds on heather-dominated moorland. Journal of Applied Ecology 38, 439–457 (2001).
34. Whittingham, J., Percival, S. M. & Brown, A. F. Time budgets and foraging of breeding golden plover Pluvialis apricaria. Journal of Applied Ecology 37, 632–646 (2000).
35. Pearce-Higgins, W. Modelling conservation management options for a southern range-margin population of Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria vulnerable to climate change. Ibis 153, 345–356 (2011).
36. Pearce-Higgins, J. W., Dennis, P., Whittingham, M. J. & Yalden, D. W. Impacts of climate on prey abundance account for fluctuations in a population of a northern wader at the southern edge of its range. Glob Chang Biol 16, 12–23 (2010).
37. Pearce-Higgins, W. & Yalden, D. W. Variation in the use of pasture by breeding European Golden Plovers Pluvialis apricaria in relation to prey availability. Ibis 145, 365–381 (2003).
38. Gillings, S. Plugging the gaps-winter studies of Eurasian Golden Plovers and Northern